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What is Financial Modeling?

Imagine being able to predict the future of your business, make smarter investment decisions, and turn raw numbers into a clear roadmap for growth. That’s exactly what financial modeling does—it transforms complex financial data into actionable insights, helping entrepreneurs, investors, and professionals make decisions with confidence. Whether you’re planning a startup, evaluating a new project, or managing an existing business, mastering financial modeling can be your ultimate game-changer.

Financial modeling is a critical tool in corporate finance, investment analysis, and strategic decision-making. It allows analysts, investors, and business leaders to forecast a company’s financial performance, evaluate investment opportunities, and make informed decisions.

Financial modeling is the process of creating a mathematical representation of a company’s financial performance. Typically built in Excel or other spreadsheet tools, a financial model uses historical data and assumptions about the future to predict revenue, expenses, cash flows, and profitability.

Key purposes of financial modeling include:

• Valuation: Estimating a company’s worth for M&A, IPOs, or investment decisions.
• Decision-making: Assessing the impact of strategic initiatives such as new projects or cost-cutting measures.
• Fundraising & budgeting: Helping companies plan capital requirements and allocations.
• Scenario analysis: Evaluating “what if” scenarios, like changes in sales growth, interest rates, or market conditions.

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How to Build a Financial Model

Building a financial model requires both financial knowledge and technical skills in Excel or similar tools. Here’s a step-by-step approach:

1. Gather Historical Data

Collect at least 3–5 years of financial statements, including:

• Income Statement
• Balance Sheet
• Cash Flow Statement

2. Identify Key Drivers

Determine the main variables that influence the company’s financial performance, such as:

• Revenue growth rate
• Gross margin
• Operating expenses
• Capital expenditures
• Debt levels

3. Build Assumptions

Assumptions are the foundation of your model. For example:

• Sales will grow 10% annually
• Gross margin will remain 45%
• Debt repayment schedule and interest rates

4. Forecast Financial Statements

Using historical data and assumptions, project:

• Income Statement: Revenues, expenses, EBITDA, net income
• Balance Sheet: Assets, liabilities, equity
• Cash Flow Statement: Cash inflows and outflows, free cash flow

5. Conduct Scenario Analysis

Evaluate different situations such as:

• Optimistic case (higher sales, lower costs)
• Base case (expected performance)
• Pessimistic case (lower sales, higher costs)

6. Perform Valuation

Use methods like:

• Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) analysis
• Comparable company analysis
• Precedent transactions

7. Make Decisions

• Evaluates Feasibility – Tests if new projects or expansions (like going online) are financially viable.
• Forecasts Performance – Projects revenues, costs, and cash flows to anticipate future results.
• Assesses Value – Helps determine enterprise value (EV) and shareholder returns.
• Compares Scenarios – Runs “what-if” analyses to see outcomes under different assumptions.
• Supports Investors & Lenders – Builds confidence by showing structured, data-driven decisions.

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TrendMart’s Journey: How Financial Modeling Guided a Smart Online Expansion

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Step 1: Looking Back – Understanding the Past

Rohit started by analyzing TrendMart’s historical performance:

Year	Revenue (₹M)	Net Profit (₹M)
2022	50	5
2023	60	6
2024	70	7

Revenue grew steadily, and net profit hovered around 10% of revenue. This gave Rohit a solid base for future projections.

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Step 2: Identifying Key Drivers

Next, Rohit worked with a financial analyst to identify key drivers for his online expansion:

• Revenue growth: How quickly online sales could increase
• Gross margin: Ensuring products remain profitable after platform fees
• Operating expenses: Marketing, logistics, and technology costs
• Expansion cost: Initial setup investment for online operations

How Key Drivers Are Determined

Drivers are the variables that directly affect financial performance. Analysts identify them by studying the business model, industry, and past data.

For TrendMart (a retail business going online), the key drivers were:

• Revenue growth rate
  • Determined from historical trends (2022–2024 revenue grew ~15–20%).
  • Benchmarked against industry growth rates (e.g., online retail sector in India might be growing 15–25% per year).
  • Adjusted for company’s capacity (Rohit can’t grow faster than logistics/marketing allows).
• Gross margin (profit after direct costs)
  • Historical gross margin (in local retail ~40%).
  • Industry benchmarks for online retail margins.
  • Impact of platform commissions (e.g., Amazon, Flipkart might take 8–15%).
• Operating expenses (marketing, logistics, salaries, rent, IT)
  • Historical expense ratio ~20% of revenue.
  • Online expansion typically increases marketing costs, so assumption tested at 20–25%.
• Capital expenditures (CapEx)
  • One-time expansion cost (₹10M) estimated from tech platform setup, warehouse, delivery tie-ups, and digital marketing campaigns.
  • Cross-checked with vendor quotations or benchmarks.
• Discount rate (12%)
  • Based on cost of capital (Rohit could borrow at ~10–12%, investors would also expect ~12–15%).

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Step 3: Making Realistic Assumptions

Together, they agreed on the following assumptions:

• Revenue growth: 15% per year
• Gross margin: 40%
• Operating expenses: 20% of revenue
• One-time online expansion cost: ₹10M in Year 1
• Discount rate for valuation: 12%

These assumptions became the backbone of TrendMart’s financial model.

The strength of a financial model lies in how realistic and justifiable the assumptions are. A smart analyst:

• Uses data + industry research + judgment
• Tests multiple scenarios (best, worst, base)
• Documents the rationale, so investors and managers know why those numbers were used

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Step 4: Forecasting the Future

Using the model, Rohit projected revenues, profits, and cash flow for the next 3 years.

Year	Revenue (₹M)	Gross Profit (₹M)	Operating Expenses (₹M)	Expansion Cost (₹M)	Net Profit (₹M)
2025	80	32	16	10	6
2026	92	36.8	18.4	0	18.4
2027	106	42.4	21.2	0	21.2

Step-by-step calculations for 2025:

• Revenue = 70 × 1.15 = 80.5 ≈ 80
• Gross Profit = 80 × 0.40 = 32
• Operating Expenses = 80 × 0.20 = 16
• Net Profit = 32 − 16 − 10 (expansion cost) = 6

This forecast gave Rohit a clear picture of profitability under the expansion plan.

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Step 5: Valuation Using Discounted Cash Flow (DCF)

Rohit wanted to know the value his business could achieve with an online presence. Using a simplified DCF approach:

Step 5a: Free Cash Flow (FCF)

Year	Net Profit / FCF (₹M)
2025	6
2026	18.4
2027	21.2

Free Cash Flow is the cash available to investors (debt + equity holders) after the company pays for:

• Day-to-day operations, and
• Necessary capital expenditures (CapEx).

👉 Formula (simplified):

FCF=EBIT×(1−Tax Rate)+Depreciation−CapEx−ΔWorking Capital

In practice, analysts often adjust based on data availability. For smaller case studies (like TrendMart), we sometimes approximate FCF ≈ Net Profit if depreciation, taxes, and working capital changes are small or stable.

In real-world corporate models, FCF requires:

• Working capital projections (inventory, receivables, payables)
• Detailed tax calculation (EBIT × (1 – tax rate))
• Depreciation & amortization adjustments
• Ongoing CapEx estimates (warehouses, logistics, IT upgrades)

Step 5b: Present Value of Cash Flows

PV=FCF​/(1+r)^t

Where r = 12% discount rate, t = year number

• 2025: 6 / 1.12 ≈ 5.36
• 2026: 18.4 / (1.12)^2 ≈ 14.66
• 2027: 21.2 / (1.12)^3 ≈ 15.1

Total Present Value (EV) = 5.36 + 14.66 + 15.1 ≈ ₹35.1M

👉 This is the Enterprise Value of TrendMart based on our simplified 3-year model.

Note: A full DCF would include a terminal value, but even this simplified model shows the financial upside of going online.

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Step 6: Scenario Analysis – Preparing for Uncertainty

Rohit tested different growth scenarios:

• Optimistic: 20% revenue growth → Net Profit Year 2027 ≈ 26.8 → EV higher
• Pessimistic: 10% growth → Net Profit Year 2027 ≈ 16.1 → EV lower

This risk assessment helped him plan contingencies, like phasing marketing spend or gradual rollout, if online adoption was slower.

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Step 7: Making the Decision – Go Online or Not?

The financial model guided Rohit in multiple ways:

1. Profitability check: Even after the ₹10M expansion cost, profits remain positive.
2. Cash flow planning: He knew exactly how much funding was needed upfront.
3. Risk assessment: Scenario analysis prepared him for slow or fast growth.
4. Valuation insight: The online expansion could significantly increase TrendMart’s worth, attracting potential investors.
5. Timing strategy: He could plan when to spend on marketing and platform development to optimize returns.

✅ With these insights, Rohit made a data-driven decision: he would expand online, confident that TrendMart could grow sustainably and profitably.

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Considering Terminal Value

Let’s extend the TrendMart case with a Terminal Value (TV) to get a more realistic Enterprise Value (EV).

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Step 1: Recap of Free Cash Flows (FCFs)

From TrendMart’s online expansion model:

Year	Forecast FCF (₹M)
2025	6.0
2026	18.4
2027	21.2

We will now discount these to present value (PV).

Discount rate (WACC) = 12%.

PV=FCF/(1+r)^t

• 2025 PV = 6 / (1.12)^1 ≈ 5.36M
• 2026 PV = 18.4 / (1.12)^2 ≈ 14.66M
• 2027 PV = 21.2 / (1.12)^3 ≈ 15.10M

👉 Sum of 3-year PVs = 35.12M

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Step 2: Add Terminal Value (TV)

Since businesses don’t stop after 3 years, we estimate a terminal value from 2027 onward.

We’ll use the Gordon Growth Method: TV=FCF2027×(1+g)/(r−g)

Where:

• FCF2027=21.2M
• Long-term growth rate (ggg) = 4% (reasonable for retail in India)
• Discount rate (rrr) = 12%

TV=21.2×1.04/(0.12−0.04)

TV=22.048/0.08=275.6

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Step 3: Discount the Terminal Value

PV(TV)=275.6(1.12)^3

PV(TV) ≈ 275.6/1.4049 ​≈ 196.2M

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Step 4: Enterprise Value (EV)

EV=PV(FCFs)+PV(TV)

EV=35.12M+196.2M=231.3M

👉 Enterprise Value of TrendMart ≈ ₹231M

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Step 5: Equity Value

If TrendMart has:

• Debt = ₹30M
• Cash = ₹5M

Then, Equity Value=EV−Debt+Cash

Equity Value=231.3−30+5=206.3M

So the shareholders’ value of TrendMart is about ₹206M.

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Why This Matters for Rohit’s Decision

• Before expansion, TrendMart might have been valued much lower (say ₹80–100M).
• After adding the online channel, EV rises to ₹231M → Value Creation confirmed.
• Rohit now has proof that going online is not just profitable, but also increases shareholder wealth significantly.

✅ In short: Adding the terminal value makes the model realistic, showing that TrendMart’s long-term value creation is far greater than the near-term profits.

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Key Takeaways

• Financial modeling turns uncertainty into clarity.
• Even small businesses can use it to plan expansions, manage cash flow, and attract investors.
• Scenario analysis ensures you are prepared for risks, not just optimistic forecasts.
• A model is not just numbers—it’s a decision-making tool that guides strategy and growth.

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Call to Action

“Don’t leave your business decisions to guesswork—start building your financial model today and take control of your financial future. Download our free template, explore step-by-step examples, and turn numbers into actionable insights!”

Read more blogs here.

Here’s a good reference link for financial modeling (concepts, examples, templates):

11 Financial Modeling Examples & Templates for 2025

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📖 The Story Behind Valuing a Company

Years later, Rajesh reflected on that painful mistake. It wasn’t that the company was bad — it was that he had no framework to judge whether the stock price made sense. If he had known how analysts use tools like the Dividend Discount Model (DDM), Discounted Cash Flow (DCF), or Relative Valuation (Multiples), he could have avoided being swept away by market hype.

That’s the essence of equity valuation. Behind every stock price is a story — of dividends, cash flows, growth, and market perception. And as investors, our job is to separate the noise from reality.

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📊 Understanding Equity Valuation: DDM vs DCF vs Relative Models

Valuing a company’s stock is at the heart of investing. But with multiple valuation models available, which one should you rely on? The answer often depends on the type of company and the purpose of your analysis. Let’s break down the three most widely used approaches: the Dividend Discount Model (DDM), the Discounted Cash Flow Model (DCF), and Relative Valuation Models.

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🔹 1. Dividend Discount Model (DDM)

The Dividend Discount Model is one of the oldest valuation methods. It assumes that a stock’s value is simply the present value of all future dividends it will pay.

• Formula (Gordon Growth Model): P0=D1r−gP_0 = \frac{D_1}{r – g}P0​=r−gD1​​ where D1D_1D1​ is the expected dividend, rrr is the cost of equity, and ggg is the dividend growth rate.
• When to Use:
  • Mature companies with consistent dividend payouts (banks, utilities, FMCG).
• Strength: Simple, dividend-focused.
• Weakness: Doesn’t work for companies that don’t pay dividends or have erratic payout policies.

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🔹 2. Discounted Cash Flow Model (DCF)

The DCF model looks beyond dividends. It values a company based on the free cash flows it can generate in the future, discounted back at the appropriate cost of capital.

• Steps:
  1. Forecast revenues, margins, capex, and working capital.
  2. Estimate free cash flows (FCF).
  3. Discount FCF at the cost of capital.
  4. Add terminal value to capture long-term growth.
• When to Use:
  • Growth firms, startups, or companies reinvesting heavily rather than paying dividends.
• Strength: Comprehensive, captures firm fundamentals.
• Weakness: Highly sensitive to assumptions on growth, discount rate, and terminal value.

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🔹 3. Relative Valuation (Multiples Approach)

Sometimes, the best way to value a company is to compare it with its peers. This is where relative valuation comes in.

• Common Multiples:
  • Price-to-Earnings (P/E)
  • Enterprise Value / EBITDA
  • Price-to-Book (P/B)
  • Price-to-Sales (P/S)
• When to Use:
  • Benchmarking against competitors.
  • Quick checks against market sentiment.
• Strength: Market-driven, easy to apply.
• Weakness: Peer group choice can distort results; ignores unique fundamentals.

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🔹 Putting It All Together

No single model is perfect. Analysts typically use a combination of methods:

• DDM for stable dividend-paying firms,
• DCF as the core valuation for most businesses,
• Relative Valuation as a cross-check against market pricing.

By triangulating between these models, investors gain a more balanced and reliable view of a company’s true worth.

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💡 Final Thought

Equity valuation is as much an art as it is a science. Models provide the framework, but judgment, market context, and sector knowledge make the difference. The key is not to rely on just one method—but to use them together for better decision-making.

Let’s walk through each model (DDM, DCF, Relative Valuation) with a simple example so you can see the actual calculation step by step.

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📊 Example: Valuing XYZ Ltd.

Suppose we are trying to value XYZ Ltd., a listed company. Here are some assumptions:

• Current dividend per share: ₹5
• Expected dividend growth rate (g): 6% per year
• Cost of equity (r): 10%
• Projected Free Cash Flow to Firm (FCFF): grows at 8% for the next 5 years, then stabilizes at 4%
• Peer group average P/E multiple: 18x
• XYZ Ltd.’s expected EPS next year: ₹100

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1️⃣ Dividend Discount Model (DDM)

We use the Gordon Growth Model (assuming dividends grow forever at constant rate g): P0=D1r−gP_0 = \frac{D_1}{r – g}P0​=r−gD1​​

• Next year’s dividend = D1=5×(1+0.06)=₹5.30D_1 = 5 \times (1+0.06) = ₹5.30D1​=5×(1+0.06)=₹5.30
• r=10%=0.10r = 10\% = 0.10r=10%=0.10
• g=6%=0.06g = 6\% = 0.06g=6%=0.06

P0=5.300.10−0.06=5.300.04=₹132.5P_0 = \frac{5.30}{0.10 – 0.06} = \frac{5.30}{0.04} = ₹132.5P0​=0.10−0.065.30​=0.045.30​=₹132.5

👉 According to DDM, the stock is worth ₹132.5 per share.

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2️⃣ Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Model

Let’s assume projected Free Cash Flow to Firm (FCFF):

• Year 1: ₹200 Cr
• Year 2: ₹216 Cr (grows 8%)
• Year 3: ₹233 Cr
• Year 4: ₹252 Cr
• Year 5: ₹272 Cr

After Year 5, growth slows to 4% (terminal growth rate).
Discount rate (WACC) = 10%.

Step 1: Discount projected cash flows

PV=FCFt(1+r)tPV = \frac{FCF_t}{(1+r)^t}PV=(1+r)tFCFt​​

• Year 1: 200/1.1=182200 / 1.1 = 182200/1.1=182
• Year 2: 216/(1.1)2=179216 / (1.1)^2 = 179216/(1.1)2=179
• Year 3: 233/(1.1)3=175233 / (1.1)^3 = 175233/(1.1)3=175
• Year 4: 252/(1.1)4=172252 / (1.1)^4 = 172252/(1.1)4=172
• Year 5: 272/(1.1)5=169272 / (1.1)^5 = 169272/(1.1)5=169

Sum (Years 1–5) = ₹877 Cr

Step 2: Terminal Value (TV) at Year 5

TV=FCF6r−g=272×1.040.10−0.04=282.90.06=₹4715CrTV = \frac{FCF_6}{r – g} = \frac{272 \times 1.04}{0.10 – 0.04} = \frac{282.9}{0.06} = ₹4715 CrTV=r−gFCF6​​=0.10−0.04272×1.04​=0.06282.9​=₹4715Cr

Discounted back: PVTV=4715(1.1)5=₹2928CrPV_{TV} = \frac{4715}{(1.1)^5} = ₹2928 CrPVTV​=(1.1)54715​=₹2928Cr

Step 3: Total Firm Value

EV=877+2928=₹3805CrEV = 877 + 2928 = ₹3805 CrEV=877+2928=₹3805Cr

👉 According to DCF, the firm’s value = ₹3805 Cr. Divide by number of shares outstanding (say 25 Cr shares): Value per share=380525=₹152Value \ per \ share = \frac{3805}{25} = ₹152Value per share=253805​=₹152

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3️⃣ Relative Valuation (Multiples)

Given:

• Peer group average P/E = 18x
• XYZ Ltd.’s expected EPS = ₹100

Value per share=EPS×P/E=100×18=₹1800Value \ per \ share = EPS \times P/E = 100 \times 18 = ₹1800Value per share=EPS×P/E=100×18=₹1800

👉 According to relative valuation, the stock is worth ₹1800 per share.

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✅ Comparison of Results

Method	Value per share
DDM	₹132.5
DCF	₹152
Relative (P/E)	₹1800

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🔎 Interpretation

• DDM gives a low value, since dividends are relatively small compared to earnings.
• DCF provides a more balanced view, reflecting future cash flows.
• Relative valuation shows a much higher number — suggesting the market pays a premium for peers (maybe due to growth expectations, brand, or sector hype).

👉 In real-world practice, an analyst would triangulate between these models to arrive at a fair valuation range.

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🔎 Triangulating Equity Valuation Methods

When analysts value a stock, they rarely rely on a single model. Each method captures a different perspective:

• DDM → Focuses only on dividends (income for shareholders).
• DCF → Captures the company’s true cash-generating ability.
• Relative Valuation → Reflects how the market is pricing peers.

By combining all three, analysts balance fundamentals, income, and market sentiment.

🧭 Step 1: Assess Reliability of Each Model

• DDM (₹132.5)
  • XYZ pays low dividends compared to earnings.
  • DDM undervalues companies that retain profits for growth.
  • Analyst conclusion → Low weight (not very reliable here).
• DCF (₹152)
  • Based on fundamentals: free cash flow, growth, terminal value.
  • Best reflection of intrinsic value if assumptions are reasonable.
  • Analyst conclusion → High weight (most reliable).
• Relative Valuation (₹1800)
  • Shows the market is paying very high multiples for peers.
  • Could be due to sector hype or investor optimism.
  • Analyst conclusion → Cross-check only (market-driven, but can be inflated).

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🧭 Step 2: Assign Weights

Analysts often assign weights to each method based on relevance:

• DDM → 10% (since dividends aren’t the main driver)
• DCF → 60% (captures fundamentals best)
• Relative → 30% (reflects market perception)

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🧭 Step 3: Weighted Average

Fair Value=(132.5×0.10)+(152×0.60)+(1800×0.30)Fair\ Value = (132.5 \times 0.10) + (152 \times 0.60) + (1800 \times 0.30)Fair Value=(132.5×0.10)+(152×0.60)+(1800×0.30) =13.25+91.2+540=₹644.5= 13.25 + 91.2 + 540 = ₹644.5=13.25+91.2+540=₹644.5

👉 Fair Value Estimate ≈ ₹650 per share

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🎯 Analyst’s Final View

• Intrinsic value (DCF) suggests the business fundamentals justify ~₹150 per share.
• Market sentiment (Relative) pushes the number much higher (~₹1800).
• By triangulating, the analyst finds a middle ground (~₹650).

This tells us:

• Market may be overpricing peers (bubble risk).
• The stock might be undervalued if growth justifies higher multiples.
• Final recommendation → “Fair Value Range: ₹600–₹700 per share” (but watch sector sentiment).

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🔎 Investment Thesis

• Strong Fundamentals (DCF Value ~₹152):
  XYZ Ltd. generates consistent free cash flows and has healthy growth prospects. However, intrinsic cash flow value alone suggests a modest per-share valuation.
• Low Dividend Yield (DDM Value ~₹132.5):
  Dividend payouts are relatively small compared to earnings, making DDM less relevant for this stock.
• High Market Multiples (Relative Value ~₹1800):
  Peer group trades at elevated valuations (avg. P/E ~18x), significantly above fundamental value. This reflects sector optimism and investor sentiment, not necessarily underlying cash flows.

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🎯 Analyst Conclusion

Triangulating the three methods, we estimate a fair value of ~₹650 per share.

• At current levels (~₹620), the stock trades close to fair value.
• Upside is limited unless earnings growth accelerates to justify higher multiples.
• Downside risk exists if sector multiples de-rate closer to intrinsic fundamentals.

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✅ Recommendation

• Rating: HOLD
• Fair Value Range: ₹600 – ₹700
• Catalysts: Faster revenue growth, margin expansion, or higher dividend payout.
• Risks: Market de-rating, lower cash flow generation, or over-dependence on sector hype.

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🔎 Why Not a SELL Rating?

Although intrinsic value (DCF ~₹152) is far below the market multiples, analysts usually consider three factors before giving a SELL:

1. Current Price vs Fair Value Range

• Our triangulated fair value = ~₹650.
• If current price is ~₹620, the stock is within the fair value band (₹600–₹700).
• Analysts usually issue SELL only if price is well above fair value, say >20–30% overvaluation.

👉 Since the stock is trading fairly valued, SELL may be too harsh.

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2. Market Sentiment and Relative Valuation

• Peers are trading at very high multiples (P/E ~18x).
• If XYZ trades significantly below peers, issuing SELL could ignore the market’s willingness to pay a premium for the sector.
• A HOLD signals: “It’s not cheap, but not overvalued relative to the market either.”

👉 SELL might not align with how the sector is priced.

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3. Analyst Communication

• A HOLD rating often communicates: “No strong reason to buy, but also no urgency to sell.”
• SELL ratings are relatively rare because they imply clear overvaluation and strong downside risk.
• Since our fair value (~₹650) is close to market price (~₹620), HOLD is the neutral and professional stance.

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🆚 What Would Justify a SELL?

XYZ Ltd. would deserve a SELL if:

• The stock was trading significantly above fair value (e.g., at ₹900 or ₹1,200 when fair value is ₹650).
• There was clear downside risk not priced in (weakening cash flows, regulatory threats, competitive losses).
• Sector multiples were normalizing, and relative valuation no longer supported high premiums.

✅ Revised View (if stricter fundamental lens is used)

If the analyst gives more weight to DCF (since intrinsic value is much lower at ₹152), the case for a SELL strengthens. But in practice, because investors benchmark against peers and the stock trades in line with the triangulated fair value, most equity research desks would keep it at HOLD.

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✅ Key Takeaway:
Triangulation isn’t about averaging numbers blindly. It’s about understanding what each model captures, assigning importance, and arriving at a valuation range that balances fundamentals with market reality.

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🌟 Closing Thoughts

Rajesh’s story could have ended differently. If back then he had paused, run the numbers, and asked “What is this stock truly worth?” he might have protected his savings and invested with confidence.

That’s the power of equity valuation. Whether through the Dividend Discount Model (DDM), the Discounted Cash Flow Model (DCF), or Relative Valuation, these tools give you a lens to see beyond market noise and hype.

The next time you face a stock tip or a tempting rally, remember: prices move fast, but value is steady. Just like Rajesh, you’ll have a choice — to follow the crowd blindly, or to use valuation models to make decisions grounded in clarity and conviction.

Your investments deserve more than guesswork. They deserve the discipline of valuation.

Read more blogs on Finance & Corporate Governance here. External reference Investopedia.